Here are the articles by our very own Dave Salaba and Jason Harris, full of tips, advice, and information about making wine at home. These articles appear regularly in our Keystone Homebrew Supply Newsletter.

Frequently Asked Questions
by Dave Salaba
Do I have to sanitize my equipment, even the first time I use it?
You do if you don't want the effects of contamination to rear its dirty head. Perhaps the most important procedure in beer and wine making is sanitizing your equipment, even the first time you use it. Rinsing your equipment with hot water just doesn't cut it; you need to use a sanitizing solution.

There are many different types of sanitizers including Iodophor, One Step, C-Brite, and potassium metabisulfite. No matter which one you chose, it is essential that all equipment that comes in contact with your beer or wine is sanitized. We stock them all and can help you decide which is best for you.

It's been two days since I added my yeast to my fermenter, but the airlock isn't bubbling. Is this a problem?
It might be. First, double check that the lid, airlock, and gaskets are tightly sealed. If not, the gas will escape through a leak rather than pushing through the airlock.

If your seals are good and there is no bubbling, check the temperature of your fermenter. We recommend using a stick-on thermometer (under $3). Fermentation slows, and can even stop, at cooler temperatures. Keep the temperature within the range recommended for the yeast type.

If temperature isn't a problem, then the yeast is probably weak or dead. If making beer, are you sure it was below 80ºF before you added the yeast? High temperatures kill yeast. If making wine, did you use fresh yeast or a leftover package from last year? In either case, the solution would be to add more yeast as soon as possible, before bacteria can take over and ruin your beer or wine.

I bottled wine in December and now my wine is bubbly and my corks are getting pushed out of the bottle. What's going on?
Sounds like the wine is still fermenting or under going a malo-lactic fermentation, in which case you bottled too soon. If you are making wine from grapes or fresh juice, you need to let the wine age until at least June or July of the following season before bottling. If you must bottle sooner, you'll need to prevent refermentation by adding a combination of sulfites and sorbate to the wine before bottling. Otherwise wine may continue to ferment and create gas for many months.

I made some beer and it tasted great when I bottled it. Now it's a month old and carbonated, but it tastes bad. What happened?
Did you use a bottling wand to fill your bottles? If not, oxidation is probably to blame. Filling bottles directly from tubing or the bottling bucket's spigot can introduce lots of air into your beer. After a few weeks this oxygen will interact with the beer, creating stale, cardboardy, and sherry-like flavors. To avoid oxidation, always use a bottling wand to fill bottles from the bottom.

What is a hydrometer and how does it work?
Hydrometers are weighted, sealed glass tubes that float in liquids. You read the density measurement by floating the hydrometer in a small sample of beer or wine. Using either the plastic tube the hydrometer came in, or a test jar (a thicker plastic tube with a base), fill the tube with beer or wine and drop the hydrometer into the liquid. The top of the liquid will line up with printed numbers on the hydrometer.

If the sample taken before fermentation, the reading tells the beer or wine maker the potential alcohol. If taken during fermentation, the reading will give you an idea of how much more fermentation remains, and, if repeated, can tell you if the fermentation has stopped. After fermentation has stopped, take a final reading subtract that number from the reading taken before fermentation, and you'll know the amount of alcohol in your wine or beer.

Our hydrometers have three scales: Balling, specific gravity, and potential alcohol %. Balling is the scale used by professional breweries, and wine makers, who call it brix. Specific gravity is the scale most often recorded by home brewers. Using the potential alcohol is the quickest way to determine alcohol: just subtract your final reading from your original reading and that is how much alcohol by volume.

It is critical not to contaminate your beer or wine while taking samples. We suggest either collecting a sample while siphoning or using a sanitized wine thief (works like a straw). Be sure to sanitize anything used to dip, siphon, or draw off samples for your hydrometer. Close the fermenter as soon as possible. Do not risk infecting your beer or wine by returning the sample to the fermenter; sample the flavor for yourself instead.

Sulfites Are Your Friends
by Dave Salaba
Many of our customers hesitate to use sulfites in their wine because they have heard negative things. They've heard that sulfites in wine, particularly red wine, can cause headaches and allergic reactions. Here's an article from Brew King's newsletter, From the Vine, that sets the record straight.

Sulfites are present in both wine made from kits and in commercial bottled wines. In wine kits, they take the form of metabisulphite. Home winemaking also dictates the use of a sulfite solution to sanitize equipment and bottles. And that's not a bad thing. In fact, it's essentially harmless, even necessary. Potassium metabisulphite is a source of sulfur dioxide, which inhibits yeast, mold and bacteria. It does this in two ways: it kills or stuns some of the organisms, and it blocks the ability of the surviving organisms to reproduce. Both of these come into play at the end of the fermentation process, stopping fermentation activity and protecting the wine. The reproduction-blocking action is also what makes sulfite effective as a sanitizing agent--if your winemaking equipment is physically clean and you've rinsed it with a sulfite solution, nothing will grow on it.

Sulfites are also added directly to wine after fermentation, to help prevent oxidation. Oxidation in wine follows the same pattern that you see when you cut open an apple and expose it to air--the wine turns brown and takes on a flat, "cardboard" taste. Sulfur binds with the oxygen in the wine and prevents this damage.

The use of sulfur compounds is not new to wine-making. The Dutch popularized the use of sulfur to treat wine in the 16th century by refusing to ship any wines not treated, insisting that wines treated with sulfur were the only ones that could survive a long sea voyage without turning into vinegar.

Some people worry that they may be allergic to sulfites. True sulfite allergies are very rare. It's more likely that they have had a histamine reaction to red wine. What most people describe as a sulfite headache is a reaction to bio-amines, compounds formed in wines for various reasons, one of which is malolactic fermentation (the addition of special bacteria for a secondary fermentation) in the presence of sugar. Some wineries start malolactic inoculation before the end of alcohol fermentation, guaranteeing formation of bio-amines. Since wine kits don't go through malolactic treatment, they do not form bio-amines and consequently do not provoke allergic reactions.

Some facts about sulfites:
• Sulfites are a recognized food additive. The federal government controls their use.
• All commercial wines contain sulfites, even those labeled "Kosher" or "Organic"!
• Nearly all dried fruits and meats contain sulfites. For example, raisins have up to 250 PPM. Food products such as bacon, orange juice, potato chips, candied fruits, sausages and even pancake syrup contain sulfite--many at levels higher than wines.
• All grape-based wines produce sulfite naturally during fermentation, up to a level of about 10 PPM. Even with no sulfite additions, wine still contains them.
• The human body produces sulfite as a by-product of its metabolic activity. The sulfite is excreted through the kidneys.

This is not to say that sulfites are totally benign. People with breathing problems should avoid inhaling sulfite powder or the gas that comes off the prepared solution. It can act as an irritant, aggravating any breathing problems. Also, adding too much extra sulfite to wine is of no benefit, as it can spoil the flavor, giving it a "burnt match" smell. It's important to follow directions for sulfite additions.

The upshot of sulfite use is that without them, you'd have to be very careful to keep all of your equipment sanitary (with chlorine- or iodine-based sanitizers) and you'd have to drink your wine quickly, before it spoiled, probably within 1 or 2 months. The legal sulfite limit in commercial bottled dry table wines is 70 PPM. The amount of sulfite provided in Brew King wine kits will result in a level of between 16 and 25 PPM in a finished wine. Our instructions specifically allow for the option of adding sulfites in should you wish to age your wines for an extended time, giving you some degree of flexibility in the amount of sulfites present.

Keystone Homebrew Supply recommends the use of sulfites in all homemade wines. Adding sulfites to your wine is easy. A good rule of thumb is to add ¼ teaspoon per 5-6 gallons each time you: first start your wine (not in kit wines because they already contain your initial dose), rack/transfer it (wine kits provide this dose), and bottle the wine (the sulfites are not included in wine kits). Sulfites have a limited shelf life and we recommend using fresh sulfite crystals (under $2 per 2 oz.) each year. A more detailed discussion on sulfites can be found on Winemaker magazine's Website, www.winemakermag.com.

When Should I Bottle My Wine?
by Dave Salaba
We often receive this question from our customers. Like many things in life, when you get into the subject, it's not as simple as it sounds; it depends on a number of important considerations. For example, do you prefer a young, easy drinking wine, in the style of a French Nouveau, or do you prefer a wine that is more complex, with richer flavors, one that is smoother and fuller in the mouth? Are you able, like most professional wineries, to store your wine from several months to a year, enabling oak barrels or other oak additives to work their magic? Do you have the patience to craft, rather than just make, your wine? Have you made sure that your juice has fermented to complete dryness? If it's a red or a selected white made from fresh juice, has it completed malolactic fermentation so that residual yeast or other microorganisms are not going to come to life after you have bottled the wine? These are but a few of the many things you need to consider when attempting to answer the question, "When should I bottle my wine?" At Keystone we are prepared to help guide you through the process, and help take some of the mystery out of the subject.

I made some red wine from fresh juice. When should I bottle it?
First, double check with a hydrometer reading to ensure that there is no residual sugar and that it has fermented to dryness. Next, you will want to sulfite the wine to ensure that it will stay healthy and sound by adding 1/4 teaspoon potassium metabisulfite to each 5 gallons of finished wine. At this point you are faced with a decision. Do you want to start drinking the wine within the next three months (as soon as it has cleared), or wait until it has aged a bit more?

If the answer is sooner, rather than later, we suggest that you divide your wine into various-sized portions. Here's why: Any vessel that contains wine must always be kept full in order to prevent oxidation and keep spoilage organisms out. By dividing five gallons of wine into several smaller containers (such as a 3-gallon carboy, a 1-gallon jug, and two 1/2-gallon bottles), you will be able to keep the larger containers full while providing yourself with small containers of wine for consumption.

If, on the other hand, your decision is to let the wine develop additional complexity and a smoother, fuller taste, you will take a very different path which can take up to a year, but will result in a different, elegant style of wine. After the primary fermentation, skip the addition of sulfite step mentioned above and, in a storage space that is at least 64°F, add a malolactic bacteria culture (which Keystone carries) to your new wine. This reduces the amount of malic acid (which is a tart acid found in all red wines and many white wines) while providing softness and complexity. This process takes about three to four weeks and will generate a small amount of carbon dioxide, so you'll need to use a water lock (airlock) on the carboy. Most well-made wines around the world undergo malolactic fermentation because almost all red wines (and some whites) will benefit from it. Should your wine be any different? We think not!

Fermentation Basics, Part 1
We often have customers ask about the basics. Here are a few to consider.

Sanitation
All sound winemaking begins with good sanitation practices. You cannot hope to make good wine unless you make the effort to have all equipment spotlessly clean and properly sanitized. An important distinction is the difference between sanitation and sterilization. Sanitation means that all visible dirt, residue, and stains have been cleaned away, therefore removing most bacteria and wild yeasts, and most of those that remain have been killed by some sanitizing agent. This is usually accomplished in two steps, first using a cleaning agent such as a detergent, or removing dirt with hot water, scrubbing, or pressure washing. The next step would be to use idophor, One Step, bleach, heat, or some other bacteria-destroying process to kill the remaining invisible contaminants.

Sterilization, on the other hand, is the act of killing all living microscopic organisms that live inside on equipment, surfaces, utensils, and so on. Sterilization at the home-winemaking level is usually very difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. The reason is that complete sterilization is accomplished only by steam under pressure, high temperatures, or toxic chemicals that would be impractical to use, and are often downright dangerous. Additionally, once sterilized, equipment and materials must be maintained sterile, and again, this is nearly impossible outside of a laboratory.

All this being said, sanitation is perhaps the most important step in the entire process we call winemaking. If we don't get this right, chances are that what we make will be mediocre at best, and at worst will be something undrinkable.

To sanitize your equipment, begin by thoroughly washing and scrubbing everything that you think will come in contact with your wine. This includes pails, measuring spoons, carboys, hoses, funnels, measuring cups, and any other equipment that will be used to hold liquids or solids that will come in contact with the wine. Any good detergent, such as PBW, One Step, or B-Brite dissolved in hot water will do the trick. A stiff brush and elbow grease followed by a thorough clean-water rinse will get this part of the job done nicely. Never use harsh cleansers like Fantastik, Spic and Span, ammonia, or Pine Sol. Also, cleaners that contain chlorine, such as household bleach, can be deadly to wine quality, so avoid them. A second rinse with clean water just before using the equipment should complete the job. As a final check, put your nose to the equipment and give it a quick sniff. Everything should smell clean or neutral. If in doubt, rinse again and smell. Your nose knows. A final rinse with a no-rinse sanitizer, such as idophor or One Step, will eliminate any potential contaminants from your water. (Water that is safe to drink may contain wine-spoiling bacteria.) Finally, do not sanitize too far in advance...after a few hours dust, containing contaminants, will settle on your clean surfaces.

Preparation
Maybe this seems too obvious, but for sure, having everything you need ready to go before you start will make your life as a winemaker easier, a lot more fun, and (for sure) less fraught with aggravation. Trying to find a set of measuring spoons or locate that long-handled stirring paddle while you are getting ready to pitch your wine yeast is no fun. You don't need a ton of complicated equipment, but it really helps to have a short checklist for yourself. If you aren't sure of exactly what you'll need, the experienced staff at Keystone can help you prepare a list of essential equipment.

Allow Enough Time (Plus a Little Extra)
Too often we end up trying to stuff six pounds of life into a five-pound bag. Winemaking under these circumstances can be a rushed, irritating, and not very happy experience. Better take a look at the calendar and set aside time to do your hobby when you haven't promised to do three other things.

Measure and Weigh
Estimating amounts by watching a liquid or powder pour into your wine is a recipe for failure. Temperature can be tough to gauge, and surrounding air temperature and humidity can fool you. Don't guess! When you guess you usually guess wrong, so take an extra moment to properly measure liquids, powders, and temperatures. For winemaking, most powders can be measured with measuring spoons if you don't have access to a scale, but leave the "dash of this, and a pinch of that" to cooks. We're making wine here.

Read the Instructions, and Keep Them Handy
Too often we get phone calls from people who have added the wrong thing, added too much of an ingredient, or added something in the wrong order. Correcting a mistake can be difficult or impossible, so we emphasize our adage, "read twice, add once."

Space, Organization, and Notes
Your don't need a warehouse, but you should have a place where you can work undisturbed and where your hobby won't be in everyone's way. Access to hot and cold water, a sink, and a work table are also desirable. Stable temperatures for fermentation are very important as well.

For most of us, it's safe to say that you can't possibly remember all that has happened in the last six months. You ask, "why is this important for my wine?" Well, for starters, if you make that award-winning batch, it will be very useful to know exactly what has been done to your wine since you started it. You don't need to keep a huge volume, but we find that a three-ring binder with a few sheets of paper inside for simple, handwritten notes will usually do the trick. For sure, wineries keep detailed records of their winemaking for just this reason, and you should too if you want to make better wine. Additionally, in the unlikely event that something adverse happens, there will be no way you can begin to sort things out unless you have kept some sort of record. Finally, a three-ring binder can hold receipts and instruction sheets for useful reference.

Fermentation Basics, Part 2: Basic Winemaking Equipment
by Dave Salaba
It's hard to believe, but another year has passed and it's harvest time again. Besides bottling our wine from last year's vintage, now is a great time to organize and make sure that we have everything that we'll need before the grapes or juice arrive. That said, let's get ready to make some wine!

Customers ask, What kind of equipment and supplies will I need to make good wine? While the list can be nearly endless (or so it may seem to our friends and family), let's go over the basic equipment that is absolutely necessary to make a decent bottle of wine. Surprisingly, at the starter level, the list is relatively short.

Raw Materials
To make good wine it is absolutely critical that you have good grapes or juice. While it may be obvious, grapes that are over- or under-ripe, infested with mold or insects, or are excessively shriveled, will severely challenge making anything drinkable. You should also avoid too much of what winemakers call MOG (Materials Other than Grapes). While a few stems and an occasional leaf is fine, too much will ruin your wine. In short, you must begin with fresh grapes or juice.

The choice of grape varieties is considerable, so it's important to give this some thought now, while you have time to think things through. If you are not sure, feel free to give us a call at Keystone Homebrew. We have many years of experience answering this question, and can offer many suggestions. Now is also a good time to decide how much wine you are going to make, and therefore how much raw materials you'll need. For fresh grapes, figure on 2¼ to 2½ gallons of finished wine per 36-pound box. This includes what winemakers call a "swing" of about 10%, plus or minus, due to moisture content in the grapes before you start, the losses during crushing and pressing, and a little extra that you'll need for "topping up" (keeping your carboys filled) along the way. For fresh juice (either red or white), you can figure that the amount that is in the pail (typically 6 gallons) is close to the amount of finished wine because most of the early losses will have already occurred.

We encourage these choices now because trying to decide what kind of grape or juice, and how much to buy while standing in front of a pallet-load of grapes can be a frustrating, confusing, and exhausting experience-I've been there, and can tell you that it's not as fun as knowing what you want. Finally, after making your decisions, it's a real plus to call before the grapes and juice arrive and make your reservation with Keystone. You'll be virtually assured of getting exactly what you want. While our suppliers are extremely reliable, they may sell out of the variety that you want if you fail to reserve yours.

Primary Fermenters
Any vessel that is made of a food-grade material such as glass, fiberglass, oxygen-impermeable plastic, or stainless steel will suffice. Just remember to allow sufficient "headspace" for the fermentation to proceed without difficulty. This is usually a large, open-topped large fermentor for crushed grapes, or a smaller container such as a carboy or demijohn if you are making wine from juice. If you are unsure about what is best, we can help answer questions. You should plan on leaving about one-third of the total volume of the vessel as "headspace" to avoid trouble such as "boil-over" spills caused by carbon dioxide foaming during the most vigorous portion of the fermentation.

Wine Press
If you are making wine from grapes, you will need some way to separate the juice from the skins and seeds. Fresh juice already has the skins and seeds removed. For small quantities of wine from grapes, pouring the juice/skins/seeds through a small nylon press bag and squeezing out the juice will suffice. For larger amounts, wine presses can be rented from Keystone, borrowed from another winemaker, or several winemakers can purchase and share a press. Be sure to work this one out in advance so you are not making yourself crazy when you need this piece of equipment. Wine presses vary considerably in size, style, and cost. We at Keystone can help you find what's best for you.

Secondary Fermenters
After primary fermentation is finished (say at 7 to 10 days or so), and the wine has been pressed off the skins or have racked the wine off the gross lees, we now have something that we could call "wine." But in reality it is a raw, cloudy, gassy liquid that is still slowly fermenting small amounts of sugar that the yeast has not yet consumed. At this stage, you will need a container (or two) that you can fill nearly to the top with the wine and attach an airlock to complete secondary fermentation sealed away from air. A slightly different problem presents itself here-that is, the amount of wine you'll now have is less than the volume you started with. Here is where several containers of varying sizes will come to the rescue, as amounts never work out precisely when dealing with this newly made wine. Generally glass carboys and demijons are used as secondary fermenters, but barrels and variable-capacity tanks are more advanced alternatives.

Hydrometer and Cylinder
A simple, essential piece of equipment for the home winemaker, a hydrometer is critical for measuring initial sugar levels before fermentation so that adjustments can be made. The reading after the sugar has been adjusted is known as the original gravity. The final gravity reading is also important to determine the end of fermentation. Both the original and final gravities are required for calculating alcohol percentage in your final product. Cost for the set is modest.

Potassium Metabisulfite (Meta) and Cleansers/Sanitizers
We've covered this topic in Part 1 of this article (see Keystone Newsletter May 2004, page 5), so we won't say much, except that you should remember that the number one cause of bad wine is poor sanitation. Cleansers such as One-Step, B-Brite, or PBW are a good place to start the process and the mandatory doses of "meta" will help ensure a clean, healthy fermentation. Again, we can help with questions here at Keystone.

Yeast and Fermentation Aids
As you might suspect, there is endless debate around the world over yeast and making wine. What kind, which strain, how much to use, what temperature ranges are best, SO2 tolerance, yeast's effect on malolactic fermentation and so on. You can see that it can get complicated pretty quickly. However, if we remember that by sticking to a few basics, we can consistently produce a decent, and possibly really good, bottle of wine at home. Fermentation starts with your choice of yeast. Any number of tried-and-true cultured yeast strains will do nicely. A few reliable ones to consider for red wines are Pasteur Red, Bourgovin RC-212, Montrachet, Pries de Mousse, and EC 1118. For whites, Cote des Blancs, D-47, Pasteur Champagne, and EC 1118 are good choices. Again, at Keystone we are ready to help clear up any confusion if you are unsure about which to use.

Some people ask whether they can let the "natural" yeasts on the grapes do the job. You certainly can, but you should know that wild yeasts are notoriously unreliable and often will die off when the alcoholic concentration in the wine reaches 6 or 7 percent during fermentation, causing potentially serious problems with microbial spoilage. Believe me, a "stuck" fermentation with several hundred dollars worth of grapes is one thing you don't want.

Believe it or not, nutrient requirements of yeast vary considerably. It's usually difficult to determine whether or not there are sufficient nutrients (like minerals and certain vitamins) for the little critters contained in the grape juice. This might sound trivial, but it's not. If there aren't enough nutrients to complete the fermentation, the fermentation will slow down and eventually stop, resulting a "stuck" fermentation. To avoid this, just add a small quantity of commercially available yeast nutrient. This comes as an inexpensive, premixed powder containing all necessary ingredients. Mixing 1 to 2 teaspoons of yeast nutrient into a small quantity of water for each 5 gallons of must is usually sufficient.

But fermentation doesn't stop with yeast. Malo-lactic cultures are used to mellow the tart, sometime harsh, malic acid found in varying quantities in wine. While a certain amount of malo-lactic conversion occurs naturally, using a professional-grade malo-lactic culture can assure a smoother wine, perhaps with enhanced vanilla flavors and a rounder, more buttery mouthfeel. Nearly all red wines, and some white wines such as chardonnay, can benefit from malo-lactic cultures. Malo-lactic fermentation will be covered in detail in a future newsletter.

Other Necessary Equipment
Stainless steel measuring spoons, a good glass (or polyethylene) 1-quart measuring cup, a sturdy mixing paddle at least 36 inches long to reach to the bottom of the fermenter, a medium-sized stainless steel strainer or wine thief to help in getting a juice sample for the hydrometer, a small funnel, and a thermometer (the floating type) as well as a spare plastic pail (or two) will be about all you need to get started. You may also want to have several old towels and a mop to wipe up any spills that are sure to occur along the way. If you are using an open-topped fermenter, find an old, clean sheet to cover the vessel during the fermentation to keep out curious (and hungry) insects, as well as dust. Don't forget a notebook to record key information such as starting volume, starting degrees Brix, and so on. Don't count on your memory to bail you out here-write it down!

Fermentation Basics, Part 3: Malolactic Fermentation
by Dave Salaba
[Editor's Note: Our last newsletter briefly discussed malolactic fermentation, but space limitations prevented a full discussion. To do the subject justice, we'll start the full coverage here, and continue in future issues.]

Malolactic (pronounced MAH-low-LACK-tick) fermentation has been a hot topic among winemakers, as well as in university circles, for decades. Literally hundreds of papers and several books have been written on the subject and more are being presented all the time. Malolactic fermentation (called MLF for short) has been a part of winemaking (although probably unknown to early winemakers) for centuries. Almost all well-made red (and a few white) wines, from every region in the world, are subjected to MLF. There are exceptions, of course, but vintners usually favor the smoother, more pleasant, and fuller mouthfeel it produces. Suffice to say that serious (and even silly) winemakers should know at least a little about MLF.

The term malolactic comes from the process whereby the sharp-tasting malic acid contained in grapes (and wine) is converted into a smoother, softer-tasting acid called lactic acid. Malic acid is found in apples, and gives them their sharp, tart taste. Lactic acid, on the other hand, is a softer, smoother-tasting acid that can very positively affect the "mouthfeel" of our wine without making it flabby and out of balance. This process appeals to winemakers around the world because it allows them to produce wines that have sufficient acid to stand up to foods with fat content without being unpleasantly acidic.

MLF also creates a buttery richness by producing diacetyl (pronounced die-AH-seh-teel).You'll recognize diacetyl because it is used on popcorn-it's that "popcorn" smell when you go to the movies. In small amounts, this buttery characteristic is highly desirable in red wines, as well as a few whites, such as chardonnay.

Finally, MLF can also help stabilize and protect your wine against spoilage by lowering the acid in your wine and eating the nutrients that could feed organisms that create spoilage.

MLF is conducted by a special kind of bacteria. These little buggers are part of a very large class of bacteria known as lactic-acid bacteria. Other kinds of lactic-acid bacteria are used to make sauerkraut, pickles, and yogurt, but these are hardly the flavors or aromas that you would want in your best wine. Thus, our MLF will be conducted in a controlled manner using a specially formulated ready-to-use culture, available at Keystone Homebrew Supply.

Malolactic bacteria are a little fussy about their conditions. They aren't tolerant of high alcohol (above 14%), high sulfur dioxide (above 10 ppm), low temperatures (below 64°F), high acidity (pH below 3.2), and high levels of oxygen. Before you say, "Wow, this sounds complicated," be assured that for most home winemakers the conditions that favor yeasts will also favor malolactic bacteria, so most of these will be taken care of as part of your regular winemaking. The key points about MLF that you'll want to remember:

1. stick to a modest pre-fermentation use of metabisulfite (¼ to ½ tsp. per 5 gal. of must)
2. keep the temperature above 64°F
3. wait until the sugar is below 4° Brix before starting MLF

Wines made from grapes respond best to MLF. The main reason is that the bacteria work better with a small amount of grape solids to feed on in addition to the malic acid. Wine kits do not need MLF because they are formulated with malic acids. We recommend against using MLF with any wine kits because it reduces the acid levels too far and leaves the wine unbalanced.

We recommend adding the malolactic culture after primary fermentation, although a few wineries add it earlier depending on acid levels and their production schedule. For most of us however, the best time to add a MLF culture is when the sugar reads "zero" on the hydrometer.

Malolactic bacteria work more slowly than yeasts, so it may be difficult to know if they are working. Generally, the gas bubbles escaping from the airlock should increase after the MLF has started. If you are using a glass fermenter, another way to tell is to take a strong flashlight and, after darkening the room, hold the lighted flashlight at an angle near the neck of the carboy or bottle. You will see tiny bubbles making their way to the top if you observe for a minute or so.

The slow malolactic fermentation can take as long as three months, so be prepared to be patient. As the saying goes, "you may be done with the wine, but the wine isn't done with you!" If you want to be sure that the MLF has finished, we carry test kits that can confirm MLF.

Remember, if you have any questions about MLF, don't worry! We at Keystone are here to help, and we want you to be successful at making better wines! We have many years of experience in winemaking, so we encourage you to call or stop by with any questions about MLF or winemaking.

Making wine from fresh grapes is akin to making a cake from scratch. While not going through the entire process here, some things that make it more difficult include costs of materials, the space and equipment needed, and the limited time that fresh grapes are available-usually September and October. Grapes are a perishable product that wait for no one! You will need to have a flexible schedule and work when dictated by Mother Nature, or other forces, such as when the shipping company delivers late. So, a little patience will be helpful, but hey! It's our hobby…right?

Next, the grapes will need to be crushed, de-stemmed, fermented, pressed, and the partly fermented juice stored for secondary fermentation in glass, stainless steel, or wooden barrels. If you are thinking that it could also be heavy, dirty work, you are right! On the other hand, fresh grapes can produce wine that has the most amazing flavor, range of colors, delicate nose, and fullness of taste that no other method can rival.

Less difficult is making wine using fresh juice. On our scale of difficulty, it's about a 6. The process is essentially the same as with grapes, but eliminates the crushing, de-stemming, and pressing. You won't need to worry about how much juice a box of grapes will yield, or getting a press, or disposing grape skins. Still, fresh juice is perishable, so you'll have to make time when it arrives.

Wine made from juice generally results in a loss of color, flavor, and aroma. While these losses are small, they can be noticeable when the wine is compared to wine made from fresh grapes. If you are looking for a sound, early drinking wine, then fresh juice might be the best way to go. However, if you are looking for a wine that rivals the stuff made from fresh grapes, you may be disappointed starting from juice.

The easiest method is using a kit. Now before you start to make a funny face, let me say that the wines made from today's kits can be surprisingly good. In fact, they often rival those that you can purchase in retail wine stores-no kidding! The manufacturing processes used to produce them are space-age and the juice concentrates that are the base for the wine retains all the characteristics of the original grape. Scale of difficulty here is only a 3. The kits come with all the necessary ingredients and well-written, easy-to-follow instructions. If you can read and follow them, you can make wine, period. You will need only basic equipment and minimal space to make your wine, and the entire process usually takes only 4 to 6 weeks, depending on the style of wine. Wines made from kits are usually ready to drink in 3 to 6 months.

The big advantage with wine kits is that you can make wine at your leisure…no fighting Mother Nature. Costs for a kit range from about $50 to over $100, depending on the grape and style-all produce good wine. Remember, each kit makes about 25 to 30 bottles, so even with the most expensive kit, each 750ml bottle will cost less than $4. Not a bad deal. If you are a first-time winemaker, or have never enjoyed the fun of making wine in the "off season," give a kit a try…you'll be surprised just how easy it is and how good the results can be.

Whichever way you make wine, your friends and family will stand amazed at your knowledge about the mysterious process of winemaking. And don't think that you'll have trouble finishing all those bottles: Once you hear people at a gathering say "you make a great bottle of wine!" you'll have lots of volunteers.

My grandfather never added yeast to his wine, why should I?
This is a question we hear many times each year. Let me begin by saying that no, you do not need to add a commercial yeast to your juice or must in order to get a fermentation going. The skin of the wine grape is covered with a white, waxy-looking substance that is slightly sticky and which helps trap yeast and other airborne microorganisms while the grapes ripen. However, in addition to several different kinds of yeast, an amazing variety of microbes come along for a free meal of grape sugars. Mold, fungi, and bacteria are usually present in large numbers and surprisingly comprise about 95% of the biomass covering the grape. Yeasts only make up about 5%, so you can see the potential for trouble here.

While many of these molds, fungi, and bacteria are not particularly harmful, or are killed when we add sulfur dioxide, there are some that can cause real trouble for winemakers. In particular, a group known as LAB, or lactic-acid bacteria, can multiply quickly and either spoil the fermentation outright or create high levels of bad-smelling, bad-tasting compounds that can result in lousy-tasting wine. In addition, the "natural" wild yeasts usually do not have the horsepower to ferment above 7% alcohol. This presents another problem, as a lot of unfermented sugar in the wine can feed those pesky lactic-acid bacteria, which love to feed on sugars. So, while grandpa sometimes made good wine, it's a lot less risky to add some commercial yeast. Only good things can happen by doing this: you'll be more likely to end up with great wine, and I promise that no one will be offended once they taste it.

I see all sorts of cleansers and sanitizers; what should I use?
Good question. While you can use just about anything to clean equipment, some things are better, and a heck of a lot easier, to use. For starters, you'll want to clean off all visible dirt and residues that may be in and on you equipment. Here, hot water, a long soak, a mild cleanser like PBW or B-Brite, and a little elbow grease should do the trick.

People often ask if they can use dishwashing detergent, like Cascade, or a liquid soap, like Joy. You sure can, but they are a lot of work to rinse off completely and any remaining residue is deadly to wine quality. The same goes for liquid bleach. It does a great job of killing microbes, but like all chlorine-based cleansers, it is highly corrosive and you have to rinse, rinse, rinse-or else.

Once crud has dried inside a hose or piece of equipment, getting it completely off can be a real chore and a really non-fun part of winemaking. So make life easy for yourself and completely rinse your equipment as soon as you are done using it. That way, all you'll need to do is give it a light cleaning before its next use. Drying your equipment is also important. Knowing that bacteria and mold just love standing water, wineries go to great lengths to ensure that their equipment and hoses are thoroughly dried after washing. So hang up your hoses and stand your equipment upright to completely drain.

After your equipment is clean, a good sanitizer for carboys or hoses is Iodophor. This iodine-based solution is easy to prepare and use with little worry about harmful residues. Another good choice is a strong solution of potassium meta-bisulfite followed by a citric acid rinse-a technique used by many wineries.

Wine and Oak
by Jason Harris
Oak often contributes significant flavor to wine. Finding the right oak character for the wine variety can truly raise the complexity and flavor to the next level. Historically this combination of wood and oak occurred as vintners used barrels as the most economical way to store their wine. While it is no longer a matter of economy, the tradition of aging wine in oak barrels has become an integral part of many vintners winemaking techniques.

Keystone Homebrew offers home vintners many options on adding oak to their wine. Before using any oaking technique you should first evaluate the style of wine you are making and determine if oak is an appropriate additive. Consider your own personal taste preferences as well. Next, find the right species of white oak, with few exceptions, the only kind of wood used in winemaking barrels. The most commonly used oaks are American white oak (Quercus alba) and French oak (Quercus petrae Liebl), known for its soft tannins. Other oak used in barrel making comes from Hungry, Slovenia, and Portugal. Finally, determine what oak product to use. Options include oak barrels, soakers, cubes, chips, powder, and oak essence. Each product can be compared by cost, ease of use, amount of wine needed, time until result is achieved, and replication of barrel effects.

The most genuine oaking method is aging wine in a barrel. Owning a barrel is like owning a pet: it requires attention and care or things can go very wrong. The best way to keep your barrel in good condition is to keep it full of wine. Barrels that have to much ullage (air space) can be ruined along with your wine by the effects of microorganism including mold, vinegar bacteria, and the effects of oxidation. Before being used, a barrel needs to be filled with water to make sure the wood swells and that there are no leaks. If, after being used, a barrel is going to be stored empty it is imperative that a sulphur source is burned inside to prevent the growth of microorganisms. As a source of oak flavor, the useful lifespan of a barrel is about 3 years, after which time most of the oak essence has been extracted from the wood. If a barrel is contaminated by mold or vinegar bacteria it should never be used for wine again.

Let's start the comparison with the real deal, a 225L (60 gal., $595) oak barrel; this is the most common barrel size used by commercial wineries. This size barrel seems to have the best surface to volume ratio for extracting the oaks essence while reducing the effects of evaporation for one full year of aging. In order to utilize a barrel this size a winemaker must be committed to at least 60-70 gallons of one type of wine each year.

When winemakers use smaller barrels in the 5 to 30 gallon range, they have to take into consideration that the wine will only be able to spend a short period of time in the barrel. The high oak surface to wine volume ratio in small barrels increases the amount of oak tannin in the wine and also the amount of evaporation. One to three months is probably the longest you want to keep a wine in a new 5 or 6 gallon barrel. As the barrels get older and the remaining oak essence is reduced, longer aging may be possible. Nevertheless, the winemaker must stay vigilant and keep the barrel filled to prevent spoilage caused by too much evaporation. To use a small barrel, a winemaker should be committed to making six to ten batches a year, rotating the wines so that each batch gets only a short stay in the barrel. Oak barrels range from about $100 (2 gal.) to $300 (30 gal.).

Oak cubes and soakers are generally added to a wine after the primary fermentation and are allowed to soak in the wine; 1 ounce per 5 gallons for one month is typical. Oak soakers are toasted using a procedure that imitates the oak character of barrels: the outside edges are heavily toasted while the inside remains lightly toasted. This enables the soakers to contribute both the dark and light toasted oak flavors to maximize complexity. The soakers also have the added benefit of being easy to add and remove because of their spherical shape.

Oak chips are the least expensive way to add oak to wine. One ounce per 5 gallons for one month is typical. Unless you have an extremely discerning palate, these chips may provide an oakyness equivalent to the soakers or cubes.

Another fast method is oak powder, also called Oak mor, which is ground to the consistency of saw dust in order to quickly impart oak flavor. It is commonly found in wine kits and with time will settle out of wine in the fermenter. Multiple ounces are often added to wine allowing an even shorter contact time.

Last on the list of oak products is oak essence, commercially known as Sinatin 17. Oak essence is an extract of oak that can be added directly to the wine. This procedure can be done at the last minute before bottling. Using oak essence in wine is like using liquid smoke in cooking: you can get a good end result, but is it the same?

Additional information on oak barrels and oaking your wine can be found in the comprehensive book Techniques in Home Winemaking, by Daniel Pambianchi.

Winexpert Products
by Jason Harris
I (Jason) recently had the pleasure of attending an event sponsored by Brew King (now Winexpert). They had great information about their wine kits and I got to ask a lot of questions of their technical quality control person, Tim Vandergrif. Here are a few of the most important facts I gleaned from these talks.

1. Always make six gallons. The kits are designed to make six gallons, and if you make less than this you will find that your wines are overly acidic and may not complete fermentation. Tim makes the analogy that if you were making frozen orange juice and the instructions said add three cans of water, would you make better orange juice if you added only two? No, you would end up with overly sweet orange juice with so much acid that you might get heartburn before finishing your glass.

In order to make six gallons of wine, you will need a primary fermenter that holds at least seven and one-half gallons (25 liter), and a six gallon (23 liter) carboy for secondary fermentation. Six gallons is two finger widths below the bottom of the stopper in a six gallon carboy.

2. Always follow the instructions. Even if you think you know better, for example, when instructed to stir the wine while the sediment is still on the bottom, stir up the sediment! Brew King has planned for everything; when the instructions say to top up with water, they planned for that event and made sure that the final product would be the correct strength and not watery. Brew King constantly refines their kits and the instructions, so be sure to follow the instructions that come with each kit.

3. Stir the wine. One of the best ways to ensure that your wine comes out great is to follow the instructions and vigorously stir. In the first steps, when mixing the grape juice concentrate with water, it is important to thoroughly mix the wine to ensure complete fermentation. If you neglect stirring, the concentrate may separate from the water, just as oil and vinegar will separate in salad dressings. If unstirred, your wine will have excess sugar at the bottom of the fermenter which will prevent the yeast from finishing their job.

Vigorously stirring the wine when adding the fining agents will both drive off carbon dioxide and help the wine clear. A lot of stirring is required at this point to remove the carbon dioxide from solution. Getting the carbon dioxide out of your wine is important to avoid a carbonated effect which is perceived as tingly or a slight coarseness to the flavor. The other benefit of thorough stirring is that it helps the finings and the yeast work together to make the wine settle clear.

In order help you stir your wine, we carry a spoon and paddle which will fit into the top of your carboy, as well as two types of stirrers that fit into your electric drill for easy and highly effective stirring.

Mystical Mead
by Jason Harris
Did you ever wonder what the first alcoholic beverage was? Chances are it was mead. Revered by the Vikings and sipped by the ancient Greek gods, mead is an alcoholic beverage created by mixing honey and water and fermenting with yeast.

More recently (in the sixteenth century), mead gave birth to the term honeymoon. Tradition has it that the bride and groom should consume mead (honey) for one month (one moon) after a wedding if they want their first-born to be a son. Additionally, mead has long been attributed with aphrodisiacal powers, so you may want to consider mead as the next beverage slated for your fermenter.

Most beer or winemakers already have the necessary equipment to make mead. We recommend stirring 12 to 15 pounds of honey into water to total 5 gallons of liquid. To this, add a mixture of yeast nutrients and fruit acids and boil briefly, from 1 to 15 minutes. After the boil, cool the mixture, and add your yeast. The mead will ferment for two to four weeks before beginning to clear. The most challenging part of mead making comes after the mead has fermented and cleared: the aging process. Although most prehistoric mead makers probably guzzled their mead concoctions within the first week or two after collecting their honey, our personal experience tells us that aging mead at least nine months to one year will give you a much smoother and more enjoyable beverage.

Keystone Homebrew stocks a large selection of honey including: alfalfa, clover, orange blossom, tupelo, wildflower, and buckwheat, each of which has a distinctive flavor from the flower's nectar. Your yeast selection can affect your mead as well. Some suggest wine yeasts, such as Cote de Blanc; other mead makers prefer yeasts specifically designed for mead, such as Wyeast's liquid yeast cultures for sweet and dry meads. No matter which yeast you select, pick up a bottle Jason's Mead Kit--available only at Keystone Homebrew--an award winning blend of nutrients, fruit acids, and clarifier designed for 5 gallons of mead. Finally, to help you explore the magical world of mead, we carry a great new book, The Complete Mead Maker by Ken Schramm.